Glossary

President of the Transitional Federal Government since 2004. Yusuf is the former president of Puntland, and he represents the hard-line elements of the Transitional Federal Government.

An oil-rich area region on the boundary between north and south Sudan, roughly 500 miles southwest of the capital, Khartoum. A volatile region with a history of conflict, Abyei played a key role in the north-south civil war in Sudan. In May 2008, the town of Abyei was destroyed by the Sudanese Armed Forces who displaced the entire civilian population and burned Abyei’s market and housing to the ground.

The Abyei Protocol is an element of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement that establishes a special administrative status for Abyei and a process for determining the boundaries of this contentious, oil-rich region. The 2011 referendum will allow citizens of Abyei to decide whether to be a part of northern or southern Sudan.

Leader of the Shabaab, he was designated a terrorist by the United States. He was killed by U.S. missile strike in May 2008.

Intergovernmental organization of 53 African countries (all but Morocco), established in 2002 as a successor to the Organization of African Unity (OAS).

The African Union peacekeeping force currently deployed in Somalia, consisting of approximately 3,000 Ugandan and Burundian troops with a narrow mandate to protect the TFG, not the Somali people. The force has been increasingly targeted by insurgent attacks.

An independent, permanent court that tries individuals accused of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The ICC was established in 1998 by the Rome Statute, signed by 106 nations. Sudan is not party to the ICC; neither is the United States. In July 2008, the ICC requested an arrest warrant for Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir on charges of crimes against humanity, genocide, and war crimes.

Minister of State for Humanitarian Affairs. From 2003-2005, Haroun was the Sudanese Minister of State for the Interior. In this position, Haroun led the Sudanese government’s brutal counter-insurgency campaign in Darfur, which included recruiting, funding, and arming the Janjaweed militias. In April 2007, the ICC issued an arrest warrant for Haroun; he is wanted by the court for 20 counts of crimes against humanity and 22 counts of war crimes.

The Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary General for Somalia. He is the highest-ranking UN official in the country.

Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary General in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; the highest-ranking UN official in the country.

A notorious Janjaweed commander indicted by the ICC for war crimes and crimes against humanity in Darfur in April 2007. Ali Kushayb was recently arrested by the Sudanese government. The Sudanese government has maintained that it will conduct its own trial of Kushayb

A notorious Janjaweed commander indicted by the ICC for war crimes and crimes against humanity in Darfur in April 2007. Ali Kushayb was recently arrested by the Sudanese government. The Sudanese government has maintained that it will conduct its own trial of Kushayb

Umbrella group for moderate Somali opposition. It is comprised of former leaders of the Islamic Courts Union and non-Islamist opposition groups.

Loose collection of secular militias who were funded by the United States to apprehend suspected al-Qeada operatives based in Somalia. They were defeated by the militias of the Islamic Courts Union in early 2006.

The Congolese army. The FARDC is rarely paid, poorly equipped, ill-trained, and is one of the worst human rights abusers in Congo. Nearly 20,000 FARDC troops are based in North Kivu.

United Nations Special Representative for Sudan as of September 2007.

Refers to a diplomatic process involving two parties, nations, etc.

Cassiterite is the primary ore from which tin is extracted. It is crucial for the production of tin cans and electronic equipment. An estimated 6-8 percent of global tin production comes from eastern Congo.

Nation bordering Sudan to the west. Approximately 2 million Darfurian refugees currently live in eastern Chad. Chad and Sudan are also engaged in an ongoing proxy war.

Since December 2005, the Chadian National Army has fought against Sudanese-backed Chadian rebel groups seeking to overthrow President Idriss Déby. The army is widely accused of forcibly recruiting child soldiers, and has failed to uphold UN-sponsored child demobilization efforts. The army has done little to protect civilians, and has itself committed abuses against civilian populations accused of supporting the rebels.

Recently formed armed group that consists principally of ex-Congolese Mayi-Mayi militia but also includes some ex-FDLR combatants.

Short for columbite-tantalite, coltan is a metallic ore used to make tantalum capacitors, which control the electrical current flow in cell phone circuit boards. Some 80 percent of the world’s known coltan supply is in eastern Congo, and armed groups reap profits from illegal coltan mining and smuggling.

The Comprehensive Peace Agreement, commonly known as the Naivasha Agreement, was a set of agreements culminating in January 2005 that were signed between the Sudan People's Liberation Movement and the Government of Sudan. The Naivasha Agreement was meant to end the Second Sudanese Civil War, develop democratic governance countrywide and share oil revenues. It further set a timetable by which Southern Sudan would have a referendum on its independence.

Sudan-backed rebels from the Chad-Sudan border region attacked the capital of N’Djamena, attempting to depose President Déby. Hundreds of people were killed in the fighting. The rebels were repulsed after French troops intervened on behalf of the Chadian government. Following the coup attempt, President Déby broke off relations with the Sudanese government.

In February 2008, a coalition of Chadian rebels opposing Déby’s rule stormed N’Djamena once again, and advanced to the doorstep of the presidential palace. The rebels were eventually forced to retreat after several days of intense fighting against government troops. Hundreds of civilians were killed and nearly 200,000 fled south to neighboring Cameroon.

The governments of Sudan and Chad signed the Dakar Peace Agreement in March 2008 in Dakar, Senegal. The agreement was mediated by the Presidents of Libya, the Republic of the Congo, and Senegal. It established a “Contact Group” to monitor the implementation of the Dakar Peace Agreement. It is the sixth peace agreement that has been signed between Chad and Sudan in the past five years, and it is unlikely to lead to lasting peace between the two nations because it does not include any rebel groups as signatories.

western region of Sudan, approximately the size of Texas; comprised of the states of North Darfur, South Darfur, and West Darfur.

Agreement between the SLM/A faction led by Minni Minawi and the government of Sudan, signed on May 5, 2006. Despite strong pressure from the international community, other rebel factions refused to sign. Shortly thereafter, these other groups intensified their campaign against the government. As a result, the DPA is widely seen as a failure.

The DDDC was created as part of the Darfur Peace Agreement. It was designed to be “a conference in which representatives of all Darfurian stakeholders can meet to discuss the challenges of restoring peace to their land, overcoming the divisions between communities, and resolving the existing problems to build a common future.”

A formal diplomatic appeal or protest.

A process by which armed groups are disarmed and dismantled and former combatants are given compensation packages and training so that they can peacefully rejoin society. In Congo, this critical process has been inadequate and incomplete.

Hutu rebels with links to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Approximately 7,000 FDLR rebels are based in North and South Kivu. The FDLR are responsible for shocking acts of sexual violence and other crimes against humanity in eastern Congo.

Agreement signed in August 2008 between moderates in the Transitional Federal Government and the moderate Somali opposition alliance calling for cessation of hostilities, deployment of a UN peacekeeping force, and withdrawal of Ethiopian forces. Due to the exclusion of hardliner elements from both sides, it has yet to be implemented.

The capital of North Darfur

First President of Chad after independence from France in 1960. He was a southern Christian and ruled Chad until he was assassinated during a coup in 1975.

Three major Darfurian ethnic tribes. An alliance of Fur, Zaghawa, and Massalit political leaders and fighters formed several rebel groups (see above) and began attacking government outposts in Darfur in early 2003. In retaliation, the Sudanese government launched a brutal counterinsurgency campaign in Darfur with the help of Arab Janjaweed militias.

The capital of West Darfur

A ceasefire agreement signed January 23, 2008 between the Congolese government, 10 armed groups from North Kivu (including Laurent Nkunda’s CNDP), and 13 armed groups from South Kivu. The Goma agreement established a peace plan called the Amani program, but implementation is lagging and violence continues.

The current government of Sudan. The GNU is an alliance between the National Congress Party and the (former rebel) Sudan People’s Liberation Movement, and is a power sharing measure agreed upon in the 2005 peace talks that produced the CPA.

The semi-autonomous region of southern Sudan has its own government and army. Salva Kiir is the president.

The government of Sudan refers to the national unity government made up of the National Congress Party and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement. Omar al-Bashir is the current president.

Youth militia organized, supported, and deployed by ZANU-PF to disrupt rallies and attack civilians.

Islamist and former leader of the Islamic Courts Union. He is linked with the Shabaab jihadist group, and designated a terrorist by the United States government.

President of Chad, 1982-1990. Habré was a brutal dictator and has been accused by an African Union tribunal of crimes against humanity and torture. His regime allegedly carried out tens of thousands of politically-motivated killings.

A peninsula in east Africa that juts into the Arabian Sea and lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. The term also refers to the greater region containing the countries of Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia.

Zimbabwe's official annual inflation rate reached 231 million percent in early October, and the current deadlock in talks between the ruling ZANU-PF and opposition parties is likely to push hyperinflation higher. Over the past several years, many Zimbabweans have resorted to the barter system after extreme inflation rendered their currency worthless.

Current President of Chad. Déby rose to power in 1990 by overthrowing President Hissène Habré’s regime with the aid of Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir. Déby has since switched his allegiance to support the rebels in Darfur, particularly the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM). Déby is of the Zaghawa ethnic group, as are many of the rebels. In 2005, Déby’s regime amended the constitution, allowing him to run for a third term. The last several Chadian elections have been boycotted by the country’s opposition parties.

An IDP is a person who has been forced to leave his or her home for reasons such as religious or political persecution, war, or natural disaster, but has not crossed an international border; a refugee is someone who has crossed an international border under such circumstances. While this is a technical distinction, it can often have considerable meaning in international law and in an individual’s ability to receive humanitarian assistance. There are roughly 1.4 million IDPs in the Congo.

A permanent court with headquarters in The Hague and with jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes committed since its inception in 2002. The court is investigating crimes committed in the Ituri region of eastern Congo.

Broad umbrella group of Islamic courts and affiliated militias who took control of most of south-central Somalia during 2006. They were ousted by the Ethiopian military during an intervention in support of the Transitional Federal Government in December 2006.

Nomadic Arabic-speaking African tribes organized by the Sudanese government to attack sedentary African tribes in the Darfur region of Sudan.

First Vice President of Sudan from January 9, 2005 to July 3, 2005. Garang was the charismatic former leader of the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army who spent 22 years fighting for southern Sudan during the North-South civil war. He died in a helicopter crash on July 30, 2005.

President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In December 2006, Kabila became Congo’s first democratically elected president since independence.

The regional capital of southern Sudan.

A significant rebel group in Darfur, whose goal is regime change in Sudan. JEM began their rebellion against the Sudanese government in 2003, citing marginalization of the Darfur region. Covert Chadian government support for JEM became overt in late 2005 after Chadian rebels backed by Khartoum attacked a strategic border post in Chad, thus beginning the current proxy war between Chad and Sudan. In May, JEM launched a Chad-supported offensive on the Khartoum suburb of Omdurman, further escalating tensions between Chad and Sudan. Members of JEM have family ties to Chadian President Idriss Déby, and many of the rebels are from the same ethnic group as Déby, the Zaghawa.

A significant rebel group in Darfur, whose goal is regime change in Sudan. JEM began their rebellion against the Sudanese government in 2003, claiming marginalization of the Darfur region. Covert Chadian government support for JEM became overt in late 2005 after Chadian rebels backed by Khartoum attacked a strategic border post in Chad, thus beginning the proxy war between Chad and Sudan. In May, JEM launched a Chad-supported offensive on the Khartoum suburb of Omdurman, further escalating tensions between Chad and Sudan. JEM has family ties to Chadian President Idriss Déby, and many of the rebels are from the same ethnic group as Déby, the Zaghawa.

leader of the Justice and Equality Movement, or JEM, one of the main Darfurian rebel groups

The capital of Sudan, located in northern Sudan.

King of Belgium, 1865-1909. In the 1880s, King Leopold turned Congo into his own private colony and began exploiting its natural resources. His brutal rule resulted in the deaths of some 10 million Congolese.

Region of Sudan lying between Darfur and Khartoum, consisting of two states: North and South Kordofan. South Kordofan is a new state that was created by the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, and it is a critical border area between northern and southern Sudan. Dissatisfaction with the implementation of the CPA in this region is leading to growing insecurity, and some analysts have warned of the threat of a conflict on the scale of Darfur in South Kordofan.

Congolese general leading a rebellion in eastern Congo.

Former President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He was assassinated in January 2001 and replaced by his son, Joseph.

Militias loyal to Mugabe that are led and partly composed of veterans of Zimbabwe’s liberation war. Spearheaded the seizure of white-owned farms in 2000 and were used to intimidate voters during elections. Many of the self-styled war veterans did not actually serve in the liberation struggle.

Rebel group trying to overthrow the Ugandan government. Operates in southern Sudan, Central African Republic, Congo, and Uganda. Led by ICC-indictee Joseph Kony.

Chief Prosecutor for the International Criminal Court, or ICC. Ocampo opened an investigation into the Sudanese government’s role in the Darfur genocide in June 2005. In July 2008, Ocampo presented evidence to the court arguing that Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir committed crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in Darfur.

Formerly allied with President Déby, General Nouri turned against him in 2006 and is the commander of a rebel coalition that has fought the national army in eastern Chad. He helped lead a coup attempt on N’Djamena in February 2008.

Coordinator of the Amani program, the peace plan for eastern Congo.

Community-based defense forces formed by President Laurent Kabila. Mayi-Mayi militias are responsible for widespread atrocities in eastern Congo.

Leader of a faction of the SLM/A and the only rebel leader who signed the 2006 Darfur Peace Agreement, or DPA, with the Sudanese government. Minnawi has served as Special Assistant to President al-Bashir since the signing of the DPA.

President of Somalia, 1969-1991.

President of the Movement for Democratic Change, or MDC, and Zimbabwe’s main opposition leader. Tsvangirai contested the first round results of the 2008 presidential election, claiming he won a majority of votes. He withdrew from the second round of elections on the grounds that the election would not be free due to violence and government intimidation. During the presidential campaign and in the ensuing violence, Tsvangirai and his MDC supporters were victims of police brutality.

Founded in 1999, the MDC was formed from the labor movement in Zimbabwe, and is the main opposition party to Mugabe’s ZANU-PF. Despite multiple victories in various elections since 1999, the MDC has been denied equitable participation in the government, and has been forcefully intimidated and physically threatened by President Mugabe’s government.

President of Zimbabwe government since 1980. Mugabe’s government has systematically and forcefully attempted to silence political opposition and civilians throughout his rule, spurring accusations of crimes against humanity and war crimes. He and his senior officials have systematically stripped the assets of what was once the best performing economy in Africa.

Refers to a diplomatic process involving more than two nations, parties, etc.

An agreement signed November 9, 2007 between the Congolese and Rwandan governments. The communiqué established a common strategy for addressing the threat posed by the FDLR to the security and stability of both countries.

A Congolese rebel group led by Laurent Nkunda. Approximately 3,000 CNDP fighters are based in North Kivu. Nkunda justifies his rebellion as necessary to protect his ethnic Tutsi community, but his forces are responsible for crimes against humanity against civilians.

The political party of Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir.

An area in which designated aircraft are not allowed to operate. President Bush and a number of Darfur advocacy groups have called for enforcing a no-fly zone over the Darfur region to curtail Sudanese air force attacks on civilians.

Humanitarian NGOs such as the International Rescue Committee and Doctors Without Borders provide emergency assistance and other vital services, including health care and food aid, to vulnerable populations. Other NGOs work on long-term development challenges such as education and supporting the rule of law.

The capital of South Darfur

Signed by four Chadian rebel groups and Déby’s government. The parties agreed to an immediate cease-fire and the integration of opposition fighters into the national army. However, heavy fighting resumed between the Chadian army and the rebel groups within months.

A region in Ethiopia that borders Somalia and is populated by ethnic Somalis. In 2007, the Ethiopian military launched an operation against the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF), who is fighting the government over what they perceive as Ethiopian occupation. Human rights organizations have accused the Ethiopian government of committing serious abuses against the Ogadeni population.

Rebel movement of ethnic Somalis waging an insurgency against Ethiopia for control of the Ogaden region. They were supported by the Islamic Courts Union during 2006.

Current President of Sudan. Took power in 1989 after leading a coup d’état against the democratically elected government. In July 2008, the Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, or ICC, requested an arrest warrant for Bashir accusing him of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.

A Chadian opposition political party. Supported primarily by eastern Chadians, this group is among those that have boycotted the most recent presidential and parliamentary elections

President Déby’s political party. The MPS was founded in Sudan in 1990 by Déby and anti-Habré activists.

President of Rwanda. Former leader of the Rwandan Patriotic Front, or RPF, a Tutsi rebel movement which took power in Rwanda following the 1994 genocide -- despite 800,000 of their fellow Tutsis being killed by the Rwandan government and allied Hutu militias.

Rebel group composed primarily of members of the Zaghawa ethnic group. It is led by deserters from the Chadian government and army, including members of President Déby’s immediate family.

A breakaway faction of the FDLR of roughly 400 combatants.

Armed group composed of ex-FDLR combatants and Congolese Hutus that operate mainly in South Kivu. The Rastas are one of the most violent groups in eastern Congo, known to gang-rape girls and then keep them as sex slaves.

A refugee is someone who has been forced from their home and has crossed an international border, as opposed to an internally displaced person who has not crossed an international border. While this is a technical distinction, it can often have considerable meaning in international law and crucial implications for an individual’s ability to receive humanitarian assistance.

The concept that states have a primary responsibility to protect their own populations from genocide and other crimes against humanity. In 2005, the international community affirmed that it has a responsibility to act when governments fail to protect their own citizens. The responsibility to protect was affirmed by the United Nations in 2006 by UN Security Council Resolution 1674.

President Bush’s Special Envoy for Sudan, appointed in January 2008.

Director of Sudan’s National Security and Intelligence Services, Gosh has been accused by human rights groups of having a significant role in organizing the Janjaweed militias in Darfur. The U.S. government flew Gosh to the Washington to meet with CIA officials in 2005 to discuss intelligence sharing.

First Vice President of Sudan and President of Southern Sudan. Salva succeeded John Garang following Garang’s death in 2005, and is currently the Commander-in-Chief of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army.

A process to restructure and train a nation’s military and police to more effectively secure the country. In Congo, this has meant trying to develop the army as a smaller, more professional, and better trained force.

Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing deal after months of negotiations following a post-election run-off that ZANU-PF claimed showed no decisive winner. The deal stipulated that Mugabe would remain President and Tsvangirai would serve as Prime Minister in a new government. However, cabinet seats were not determined at the signing, and the two sides have been unable to agree on how to equally distribute these positions, resulting once again in deadlock. Control of the security services has been particularly contentious.

Deceased dictator who brutally ruled Congo from 1965 to 1997. While the United States supported Mobutu as a Cold War ally, he plundered Congo’s natural resources and amassed vast personal wealth.

Hardline Islamist militia, which continues to leas an insurgency against the Transitional Federal Government.

Speaker of the Transitional Federal Government until he was removed by President Abdullahi Yusuf. He is the head of the moderate wing of the Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia, or ARS.

Founder and chairman of the Islamic Courts Union, he now leads the Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia with Sheikh Aden.

Regional alliance of fourteen southern African states, focused on coordinating development projects in the region. With former South African President Mbeki serving as their chief mediator, SADC has played a key role in the post-election negotiations in Zimbabwe.

The southern region of Sudan has been partially autonomous since the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, or CPA. Salva Kiir is the President of the Government of South Sudan. A referendum on independence for Southern Sudan is set for 2011, but delays and problems in the preparation for the electoral process have already jeopardized this schedule.

Former southern rebel movement; now part of the Government of National Unity, together with the National Congress Party.

A major rebel group in Darfur, who, along with JEM, has fought against the Sudanese government since 2003. As of the end of 2007, the SLM/A had split into three main factions, and several other smaller splinter groups. The SLM/A’s founder, Abdul Wahid, is a high-profile rebel leader respected by many internally displaced persons, or IDPs, especially among his Fur tribe. The other faction of the SLM/A is lead by Minni Minnawi.

Targeted divestment is the practice of cutting off financial support to the government of Sudan by removing investments from companies doing business with the government of Sudan. The Sudanese government is highly dependent on foreign direct investment to fund its military and their counterinsurgency strategy in Darfur. Therefore, stopping investment in Sudan exerts pressure on the Sudanese government and hampers the military’s ability to continue their attacks in Darfur.

South Africa’s former president who served as chief mediator for the 2008 Zimbabwe peace talks. He was widely criticized for failing to publicly denounce President Mugabe’s oppressive rule.

A repressive law adopted during the colonial period and supported by President Mugabe. The act gives the government great power to restrict political freedoms and rights.

The Somali government created in 2004 as a government of national unity tasked with administering a five-year political transition. Supported by Ethiopia’s military intervention, the TFG has lacked popular support, been perceived as a tool of foreign interests, and has been incapable and unwilling to effectively govern the vast majority of Somalia.

A former rebel group that recruited and used child soldiers. An FUCD-led offensive sought to oust President Déby and resulted in the deaths of hundreds of civilians. The FUCD signed a peace agreement with the government in late 2006 which allowed for integration of FUCD forces into the national army.

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achieving world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries and to provide a platform for dialogue.

A United Nations peacekeeping mission deployed to Sudan in 2005 to support the Government of Sudan and the Government of Southern Sudan with the implementation of the CPA.

A United Nations peacekeeping mission focused on the Chad-Sudan border region of eastern Chad and northeastern Central African Republic. Authorized by the UN Security Council in September 2007, the military element of this operation is a 3,300 strong European Union force (known as EUFOR). However, EUFOR’s mandate will end in March 2009, at which point a UN follow-on operation will commence.

MONUC deployed in 1999 to support a peace agreement, and since 2004 has had a mandate to protect civilians. Approximately 17,000 military personnel and 3,000 civilians work for MONUC. This is the largest UN peacekeeping force currently in operation.

A joint United Nations-African Union peacekeeping mission focused on the Darfur region of Sudan. UNAMID took over from AMIS on December 31, 2007. Twenty-six thousand troops have been approved for UNAMID, but only just over 10,000 have deployed.

A semi-nomadic ethnic group whose population straddles the Chad-Sudan border. The Sudanese Janjaweed forces targeted many of their attacks against the Zaghawa group. President Déby is a Zaghawa from northern Chad.

Led by President Robert Mugabe, ZANU-PF has been the ruling party in Zimbabwe since independence in 1980.